Jacobus Cornelius Kapteyn, (January 19, 1851–June 18, 1922) was a Dutch astronomer, best known for his extensive studies of the Milky Way and as the first discoverer of evidence for galactic rotation.
Kapteyn was born in Barneveld, and went to the University of Utrecht to study mathematics and physics in 1868. In 1875, after having finished his thesis, he worked for three years at the Leiden Observatory, before becoming the first Professor of Astronomy and Theoretical Mechanics at the University of Groningen, where he remained until his retirement in 1921.
Between 1896 and 1900, lacking an observatory, he volunteered to measure photographic plates taken by David Gill, who was conducting a photographic survey of southern hemisphere stars at the Cape Town Observatory. The results of this collaboration was the publication of Cape Photographic Durchmusterung, a catalog listing positions and magnitudes for 454,875 stars in the Southern Hemisphere.
In 1897, as part of the above work, he discovered Kapteyn's Star. At the time, it had the highest proper motion of any star known. Today it is in second place, having been dethroned by Barnard's Star.
In 1904, studying the proper motions of stars, Kapteyn reported that these were not random, as it was believed in that time; stars could be divided into two streams, moving in nearly opposite directions. It was later realized that Kapteyn's data had been the first evidence of the rotation of our Galaxy, which ultimately led to the finding of galactic rotation by Bertil Lindblad and Jan Oort.
In 1906, Kapteyn launched a plan for a major study of the distribution of stars in the Galaxy, using counts of stars in different directions. The plan involved measuring the apparent magnitude, spectral type, radial velocity, and proper motion of stars in 206 zones. This enormous project was the first coordinated statistical analysis in astronomy and involved the cooperation of over forty different observatories.
He was awarded the James Craig Watson Medal in 1913. Kapteyn later retired in 1921 at the age of seventy, but on the request of his former student and director of Leiden Observatory Willem de Sitter, Kapteyn went back to Leiden to assist in upgrading the observatory to contemporary astronomical standards.
His life-work, First attempt at a theory of the arrangement and motion of the sidereal system was published in 1922, and described a lens-shaped island universe of which the density decreased away from the center, now known as the Kapteyn's Universe model. In his model the Galaxy was thought to be 40,000 light years in size, the sun being relatively close (2,000 light years) to its center. The model was valid at high galactic latitudes but failed in the galactic plane because of the lack of knowledge of interstellar absorption.
It was only after Kapteyn's death, in Amsterdam, that Robert Trumpler determined that the amount of interstellar reddening was actually much greater than had been assumed. This discovery increased the estimate of the galaxy's size to 100,000 light years, with the sun replaced to a distance of 30,000 light years from the galactic center.
The astronomy institute of the University of Groningen is named after Kapteyn. A street in the city of Groningen is also named after Kapteyn: the J.C. Kapteynlaan. And the Isaac Newton Group of Telescopes at the Canary island of La Palma named the Jacobus Kapteyn Telescope (JKT) after him.

Digital signal 1 (DS1, also known as T1, sometimes "DS-1") is a T-carrier signaling scheme devised by Bell Labs. DS1 is a widely used standard in telecommunications in North America and Japan to transmit voice and data between devices. E1 is used in place of T1 outside of North America and Japan. Technically, DS1 is the transmission protocol used over a physical T1 line; however, the terms "DS1" and "T1" are often used interchangeably.
A DS1 circuit is made up of twenty-four 8-bit channels (also known as timeslots and DS0's), each channel being a 64 kbit/s DS0 multiplexed pseudo-circuit. A DS1 is also a full-duplex circuit, meaning, in theory, the circuit can send 1.544 Mbit/s and receive 1.544 Mbit/s concurrently. A total of 1.536 Mbit/s of [1] bandwidth is achieved by sampling each of the twenty-four 8-bit DS0's 8000 times per second. This sampling is referred to as 8-kHz sampling (See Pulse-code modulation). An additional 8 kbit/s is obtained from the placement of a framing bit, for a total of 1.544 Mbit/s, calculated as follows:


DS1 frame synchronization
In SF Framing, the framing channel is divided into two channels of 4 kbit/s each. One channel is for terminal frame alignment; the second is used to align the signaling frames. The terminal frame and signaling frame bits are interleaved, rather than consecutive (they are switched in Figure 2). (correction per ANSI T1.403 Section 7.2 "A frame is a set of 192 digit time-slots for the information payload preceded by one digit time-slot containing the framing (F) bit, for a total of 193 digit time-slots." Meaning the first bit of the frame is framing bit and not the last bit.)
The terminal frame alignment channel is carried in odd-numbered frames inside the super frame and occurs with the DS0 channel synchronization. Since the framing bits occur only once per frame, in the 193rd position, the bit placement of each DS0 can be calculated. After the framing bit is sensed, the first DS0 timeslot is taken as the next 1-8 bits. Timeslot 2 is bits 9-16, timeslot 3 is 17-24, through to timeslot 24. See Figure 1. The Terminal frame alignment pattern is carried in odd-numbered frames, inside the super frame, and consists of alternating 1s and 0s: 1–0–1–0–1–0.
Signaling frame alignment channel is carried in even-numbered frames inside the super frame and is used for signaling frame alignment. The signaling frame alignment pattern consists of a 0–0–1–1–1–0. Signaling frames are identified by the framing signal's transition from 1 to 0 and from 0 to 1; thereby frames six and twelve carry signaling information. See Figure 2.
The SF format uses bit robbing to pass signaling information. Bit robbing modifies the least significant bit in each user data timeslot twice per Super Frame. (See also A&B). The two modified frames are the sixth (A) and the twelfth (B). Using two bits, four possible signaling states can be passed in each direction (0–0, 0–1, 1–0, 1–1). In order for A/B signaling to work, the exact placement of the bits must be known by both sides. Information on the frame sequence is necessary to "pick out" the A and B bits. Channel information must also be known in order to pick out the last bit of each channel. If the proper alignment (timing) did not occur, the wrong bit could be modified or read as the robbed bit. This method of signaling is also commonly referred to as Channel Associated Signaling or CAS. See Figure 2.
The SF format is also known as D4 framing and D3/D4 framing format.
Note: The legend at the bottom right of Figure 2 is incorrect. The Pink square is in fact Terminal Frame alignment bits and the Orange square is the Signal Frame alignment. The RBS is however correct.(correction per ANSI T1.403 Section 7.2 "A frame is a set of 192 digit time-slots for the information payload preceded by one digit time-slot containing the framing (F) bit, for a total of 193 digit time-slots." Meaning the first bit of the frame is framing bit and not the last bit.)

SF framing
In ESF, twenty-four frames make up the (extended) super frame. ESF divides the 8 kbit/s framing channel into three segments. The frame pattern uses 2 kbit/s, and a Cyclic redundancy check (CRC) uses 2 kbit/s. The remaining 4 kbit/s make up an administrative data link (DL) channel. The framing pattern occupies the 4th, 8th, 12th, 16th, 20th and 24th frames. The pattern consists of a 0–0–1–0–1–1 sequence. This is the only pattern repeated in the ESF format. See Figure 3.
The CRC algorithm checks a known segment of data and adds the computed value to it. The combined data and CRC blocks are both transmitted. The receive circuitry will run the same CRC algorithm against the data portion and compare the calculation to the transmitter's CRC value. In this manner, corrupted data can be flagged as "CRC errors". The CRC checksum is passed in the 2nd, 6th, 10th, 14th, 18th, and 22nd frames. (See also Error-correcting code).
The administrative channel provides a means to communicate within the DS1 stream (sub-channel). Statistics on CRC errors can be requested and sent from one end to another. The data channel occupies the twelve odd numbered frames. Signaling and other information passes over this channel. Provisions in the ESF standard would allow the normal A/B bit robbed signal to be enhanced. The A/B bits can be extended to four bits (ABCD). This provides 16 distinct states. An improvement from A/B, which provides 4. To overcome incompatibility with A/B signaling, equipment repeats the A&B bits (e.g. C = A and D = B). These additional signaling bits will offer new features as equipment is built to support it.
CRC errors can be detected and counted in at least one of four different registers. The registers are for transmit (in and out) and receive (in and out). Using recovered CRC data, it is possible to segment and isolate the direction of problems.

ESF framing
Connectivity refers to the ability of the digital carrier to carry customer data from either end to the other. In some cases, the connectivity may be lost in one direction and maintained in the other. In all cases, the terminal equipment, i.e., the equipment that marks the endpoints of the DS1, defines the connection by the quality of the received framing pattern.
Alarms are normally produced by the receiving terminal equipment when the framing is compromised. There are three defined alarm states, identified by a legacy color scheme: red, yellow and blue.
Red alarm indicates the alarming equipment is unable to recover the framing reliably. Corruption or loss of the signal will produce "red alarm." Connectivity has been lost toward the alarming equipment. There is no knowledge of connectivity toward the far end.
Yellow alarm indicates reception from the far end of a data or framing pattern that reports the far end is in "red alarm." Red alarm and yellow alarm states cannot exist simultaneously on a single piece of equipment because the "yellow alarm" pattern must be received within a framed signal. For ESF framed signals, all bits of the Data Link channel within the framing are set to data "0"; the customer data is undisturbed. For D4 framed signals, the pattern sent to indicate to the far end that inbound framing has been lost is a coercion of the framed data so that bit 2 of each timeslot is set to data "0" for three consecutive frames. Although this works well for voice circuits, the data pattern can occur frequently when carrying digital data and will produce transient "yellow alarm" states, making ESF a better alternative for data circuits.
Blue alarm indicates a disruption in the communication path between the terminal equipment. Communication devices, such as repeaters and multiplexers must see and produce line activity at the DS1 rate. If no signal is received that fills those requirements, the communications device produces a series of pulses on its output side to maintain the required activity. Those pulses represent data "1" in all data and all framing time slots. This signal maintains communication integrity while providing no framing to the terminal equipment. The receiving equipment displays a "red alarm" and sends the signal for "yellow alarm" to the far end because it has no framing, but at maintenance interfaces the equipment will report "AIS" or Alarm Indication Signal. AIS is also called "all ones" because of the data and framing pattern.
These alarm states are also lumped under the term Carrier Group Alarm (CGA). The meaning of CGA is that connectivity on the digital carrier has failed. The result of the CGA condition varies depending on the equipment function. Voice equipment typically coerces the robbed bits for signaling to a state that will result in the far end properly handling the condition, while applying an often different state to the customer equipment connected to the alarmed equipment. Simultaneously, the customer data is often coerced to a 0x7F pattern, signifying a zero-voltage condition on voice equipment. Data equipment usually passes whatever data may be present, if any, leaving it to the customer equipment to deal with the condition.

Connectivity and Alarms
Before the jump in Internet traffic in the mid 1990s, DS1s were found almost exclusively in telephone company central offices as a means to transport voice traffic between locations. DS1s have been and still are the primary way cellular phone carriers connect their central office switches (MSCs) to the cell sites deployed throughout a city.
Today, companies often use an entire DS1 for Internet traffic, providing 1.544 Mbit/s of connectivity (allowing for 1.536 Mbit/s of usable traffic, and 8 kbit/s of framing overhead). However, DS1 can be ordered as a channeled circuit, and any number of channels can be reserved for non-data (for example, voice) traffic.

Real world use
Additionally, for voice T1s there are two types: so-called "plain" or Inband T1s and PRI (Primary Rate Interface). While both carry voice telephone calls in similar fashion, PRIs are commonly used in call centers and provide not only the 23 actual usable telephone lines (Known as "B" channels) but also a 24th line that carries signaling information (Known as the "D" channel for Data.
Inband T1s are also capable of carrying CID and ANI information if they are configured by the carrier to do so but PRI's handle this as a standard and thus the PRI's CID and ANI information has a much better chance of getting through to the destination. While an Inband T1 seemingly has a slight advantage due to 24 lines being available to make calls (as opposed to a PRI that has 23), each channel in an Inband T1 must perform its own set up and teardown of each call. A PRI uses the 24th channel as a data channel to perform all the overhead operations of the other 23 channels (including CID and ANI). So even though an Inband T1 has 24 channels, the PRI can actually dial more calls faster because of the dedicated data (also called "D") channel.

If you are searching for the Uppsala of Norse mythology, see also Gamla Uppsala.
Uppsala [ˈɵpˌsɑːla] (older spelling Upsala) is the seat of Uppsala County (Uppsala län) and the fourth largest city of Sweden. Located about 70 km north of the capital Stockholm, it is also the seat of the Uppsala municipality (Uppsala kommun). Since 1164, Uppsala has been the ecclesiastical center of Sweden, being the seat of the Sweden's head archbishop. Founded in 1477, the Uppsala University is the oldest center of higher education in Scandinavia and much of Northern Europe.

History
Situated on the fertile Uppsala flatlands of muddy soil, the city is featured by the small Fyris River (Fyrisån) flowing through the landscape surrounded by lush vegetation. Parallel to the river runs the glacial ridge of Uppsalaåsen, at an elevation of circa 30 metres the site of Uppsala's castle from which large parts of the town can be seen. The central park Stadsskogen stretches from the south far into town, with opportunities for recreation for many residential areas within walking distance.
Only some 70 kilometers or 40 minutes by train from the capital, many Uppsala residents work in Stockholm. The train to Stockholm-Arlanda Airport takes only 17 minutes, rendering the city easily accessible by air.
The commercial centre of Uppsala can best be described as quite compact: While some beautiful buildings remain in the periphery of the central core, especially on the less intensively built western river bank around the cathedral, castle and university, retail commercial activity is geographically focused to a minor number of blocks around the pedestrianized streets and main square, an area which was subject to large-scale post-World War II metamorphosis during the economically booming years in the 1960s in particular. During recent decades, a significant part of the retail commercial activity has been relocated to shopping malls and stores situated in the outskirts of the city. Alongside with this, the built up areas have expanded in a quite extensive way, and a certain suburbanization has taken place.

Geography
Today Uppsala is well established in medical research and recognized for its leading position in biotechnology.

Advanced Medical Optics (AMO)
GE Healthcare
Pfizer (see Pharmacia)
Fresenius
Slotts (food manufacturer, including mustard)
Lindvalls kaffe (coffee manufacturer)
Headquarters of MySQL AB
Q-Med (bioscience) Universities
The Fyris river neatly divides the city into two different parts: the historic quarter to the west of the river and the administrative, residential and commercial area to the east. Most of the features of interest are in the western part, dominated by the cathedral, and with its old streets, river views and parks.
The most outstanding building in Uppsala is the Domkyrka (Uppsala Cathedral), Scandinavia's largest church (118.70m high), which is visible from most parts of town and from the motorway.
Facing the west end of the cathedral is the Gustavianum, built in 1625 to be the main building of the University, and served as such through most of the 19th century. It contains the Museum of Nordic Antiquities, the Victoria Museum (of Egyptian antiquities) and the University's cultural history collections. It also houses a perfectly preserved 17th-century Anatomical Theatre (used in its time for public dissections).
Across the street from the Gustavianum stands the new building of the Uppsala University, erected in 1879-86 in Italian Renaissance style.
Not very far from the University stands the Uppsala University Library (Carolina Rediviva), also the largest library in Sweden, with over 2 million volumes and some 30,000 manuscripts. The building was built in 1820-1841.
On a circa 35-metre high hill to the southwest of the University Library stands Uppsala Castle. Its construction was initiated in 1549 by King Gustav Vasa, founder of the modern Swedish kingdom. Today the castle holds several museums.
5km north of Uppsala lies Gamla Uppsala (Old Uppsala), the location of the medieval village of Uppsala. There are few remains, with the exception of three huge burial mounds of pre-Christian monarchs and a 12th-century church.

Sites of interest
Of these, Arrhenius, Bergman, Blix, Carlsson, Celsius, Eriksson and Hallman were born in Uppsala.

Anders Jonas Ångström
Svante Arrhenius
Ingmar Bergman
Jöns Jakob Berzelius
Hans Blix
Arvid Carlsson
Anders Celsius
Stefan Eriksson
Martin Eriksson (E-Type)
Torsten Hallman
Dag Hammarskjöld
Carolus Linnaeus
Olaus Rudbeckius
Roine Stolt Twin cities

Uppsala Municipality (Kommun)
Upsala-Lenna Jernväg
Gamla Uppsala Old Uppsala in Norse mythology
Temple at Uppsala The Temple of Old Uppsala in Norse Mythology
Upsala Nya Tidning the major local newspaper
Ärna Uppsala airport
Area code 018
Disting

Patricio Javier Urrutia Espinoza, nicknamed Pato (born 15 October 1977) is an Ecuadorian soccer player of international distinction. A central midfielder for the Liga Deportiva Universitaria de Quito, he was chosen to be part of Ecuador's team in the World Cup games in Germany in 2006. His appointment to the Ecuadorian squad for the 2006 FIFA World Cup raised a few eyebrows mainly because his last international appearance was against Brazil in 2004.
He scored five goals for Liga Deportiva Universitaria de Quito helping them reach the quarterfinals for the Copa Libertadores in 2006.
Source: Hoy, May 11 and 12, 2006.
1 Villafuerte • 2 Guagua • 3 Hurtado • 4 de la Cruz • 5 Perlaza • 6 Urrutia • 7 Lara • 8 Méndez • 9 Borja • 10 Kaviedes • 11 Delgado • 12 Mora • 13 Ambrosi • 14 Castillo • 15 Ayoví • 16 Valencia • 17 Espinoza • 18 Reasco • 19 Saritama • 20 E. Tenorio • 21 C. Tenorio • 22 Lanza • 23 Benítez • Coach: Suárez

The Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, located in Seattle, Washington was established in 1975 and is one of the world's leading cancer-research institutes. Its interdisciplinary teams of scientists conduct research in the laboratory, at patient bedside, and in communities throughout the world to advance the prevention, early detection, and treatment of cancer and other diseases.
Center researchers pioneered bone-marrow transplantation for leukemia and other blood diseases. This research has cured thousands of patients worldwide and has boosted survival rates for certain forms of leukemia from zero to as high as 85 percent.
The Center grew out of the Pacific Northwest Research Foundation, founded in 1956 by Dr. William Hutchinson. The Foundation was dedicated to the study of heart surgery, cancer, and diseases of the endocrine system. In 1964, Dr. Hutchinson's brother Fred Hutchinson, who had been a baseball player for the Seattle Rainiers and Detroit Tigers and later managed the Rainiers, the Tigers, the St. Louis Cardinals and the Cincinnati Reds, died of lung cancer. The next year, Dr. Hutchinson established the Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center as a division of the Pacific Northwest Research Foundation. The Center split off from its parent foundation in 1972, and the physical center was opened in 1975.

Nobel Prize Recipients
The Hutchinson Center is home to three recipients of the Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine.

Linda Buck, Ph.D., received the award in 2004 for solving many details of the olfactory system – the complex network that governs our sense of smell. [1]
Lee Hartwell, Ph.D., the Center's president and director, received the honor in 2001 for his discoveries regarding the mechanisms that control cell division [2]; and
E. Donnall Thomas, M.D., received the award in 1990 for his pioneering work in bone-marrow transplantation [3];

This is about the stadium the New York Yankees currently play in. For the Yankees' new stadium see: New Yankee Stadium
Yankee Stadium is a baseball stadium in New York City that is the home of the New York Yankees, a Major League baseball team. Located at East 161st Street and River Avenue in the Bronx, it has hosted Yankees home games since 1923. It was formerly the home of the New York Giants football team, and once hosted dozens of boxing's most famous fights.
Yankee Stadium is one of the most famous sports venues in the world, due to its primary occupants having won more World Series championships than any other team. Its nickname, "The House that Ruth Built", comes from the iconic Babe Ruth, the baseball superstar whose prime years coincided with the beginning of the Yankees' winning history. Many Yankee fans refer to it as simply "The Stadium" (as in "I'm going to a game at the Stadium").
In 2006, the Yankees began construction on a new $1.3 billion stadium in public parkland adjacent to Yankee Stadium. The Yankees are expecting to open the 2009 season in their new home. Once the new stadium opens, most of the stadium, including all of the above ground structure, will be demolished to become parkland.

History and design
By the late 1960s, Yankee Stadium's condition had badly deteriorated, and the surrounding neighborhood had gone to seed as well. In 1971, CBS, which owned the Yankees at the time, proposed extensive renovations to Yankee Stadium. However, this would require the Yankees to play their home games at Shea Stadium in Queens, the regular home of the New York Mets. The Mets, as Shea's primary tenants, refused to sign off on letting the Yankees play there as well--effectively delaying the renovations. CBS then gave serious thought to building a stadium in the New Jersey Meadowlands before selling the Yankees to George Steinbrenner in 1972.
Finally, in mid-1972, Mayor John Lindsay stepped in and announced the city would buy Yankee Stadium for $24 million (by comparison, it cost only $2.4 million to build in 1923) and lease it back to the Yankees. Since the city owned Shea Stadium as well, the Mets had little choice but to agree. Yankee Stadium closed on September 30, 1973 for the two-year facelift; the Yankees played the 1974 and 1975 seasons in Shea Stadium.
A significant portion of the stadium was gutted and rebuilt, leading many to consider the rebuilt Yankee Stadium a different facility from the pre-renovation stadium. For example, the ESPN Sports Almanac considers the renovated stadium to be "Yankee Stadium II," and the pre-renovated facility to be "Yankee Stadium I." The most noticeable difference resulting from the renovation was the removal of the 118 columns that reinforced each tier of the Stadium's grandstand. The Stadium's roof, including the distinctive, 15-foot copper frieze that circled its interior, was replaced by the new upper shell that now exists and new lights were added. A white replica of this frieze was built at the top the wall behind the bleachers. The playing field was lowered by about seven feet and moved forward, slightly.
Yankee Stadium installed the first instant-replay display in baseball. All seats in the old stadium were replaced with wider, more modern plastic seats, and the upper deck was expanded upward by approximately nine rows, as modern building techniques allowed them to do this. There appears to be an extra guardrail in the upper seating of the modern stadium where the original runways to the upper level concourse once ran.
A new upper concourse was built above where the old concourse existed and the old exits were closed in by new seating. The old, closed-in upper-deck concourse still exists to this day and is used by stadium employees for transport. A new "loge/ middle-tier" section was also built for the new stadium with far fewer seats to create a larger press box and 16 luxury boxes. About half of the bleachers seats were eliminated; the middle portion was converted to what is today called "the black," a dark, unused area that serves as the batter's eye. A wall was built behind the bleachers, preventing strap-hangers from watching the game perched on the elevated subway platform above River Avenue. All told, the Stadium was reduced to a listed capacity of 57,545. The Stadium's dimensions were narrowed, leaving the monuments and plaques that today comprise Monument Park behind an inner fence (they had been in fair territory). Several new restrooms were added throughout the stadium, along with three elevators. The southern border of the Stadium, 157th Street, was closed to cars and became part of the Stadium's property. The city also seized property on the southern side of this street for a four-story parking garage (about 2,300 parking spaces) to suit the increasingly suburban crowd who the Yankees were hoping to attract. No money was spent to help the residents and business owners of the neighborhood, fueling the sometimes uneasy relationship between the Yankees and their neighbors.
Some Yankee fans, as well as baseball purists, criticized the decision to reconfigure the field, believing that the Yankees could have made necessary renovations and still kept the pre-1973 dimensions; however, many of these aforementioned critics do not realize that the playing fields of the "old" and "new" stadiums are, in fact, different.
The cost of the 1970s renovations, $160 million, was originally borne by New York City and is now being paid off by New York State. At the time, many referred to Yankee Stadium as the House That Lindsay Rebuilt, because the costly renovations were approved by New York City's Board of Estimate based on the insistence of Mayor John Lindsay. Lindsay had orchestrated the city's purchase of Yankee Stadium from Rice University (the university in Houston, Texas owned the stadium thanks to a bequeathment from John William Cox '27) and the nine-acre parcel of property the Stadium occupies from the Knights of Columbus, also the recipients of a gift by Cox.
The Stadium reopened on April 11, 1976. More than 54,000 fans saw the Yankees beat the Minnesota Twins, 11-4, and the "new Stadium" hosted its first playoff and World Series games that October.

1974-75 renovation
When Yankee Stadium opened in 1923, the Polo Grounds continued to host boxing matches. But Yankee Stadium soon encroached on that territory. Benny Leonard retained the lightweight championship in a 15-round decision over Lou Tendler on July 24, 1923, in front of more than 58,000 fans. It was the first of 30 championship bouts to be held at the Stadium. (This excludes dozens of nontitle fights.) The boxing ring was placed over second base; a 15-foot vault contained electrical, telegraph, and telephone connections. In July 1927, the aging former heavyweight champion Jack Dempsey came from behind to defeat heavily favored Jack Sharkey by delivering several questionable punches that were deemed illegal. Sharkey had similarly bad luck in a July 1930 heavyweight championship bout at Yankee Stadium, when his knockout punch to Max Schmeling was ruled illegal; Schmeling won by default. In July 1928, Gene Tunney upheld the heavyweight title against Tom Heeney at Yankee Stadium, and then retired as champion.
Perhaps the most famous boxing match ever was held at Yankee Stadium on June 22, 1938, when Joe Louis, a black American, squared off against Schmeling, a German. With his Nazi Party on the verge of taking over much of Europe, Adolf Hitler followed the rematch carefully, imploring Schmeling to defeat Louis, whom Hitler publicly berated. This left some with a moral predicament: root for the black fighter or for the Nazi. Schmeling had defeated Louis in 1936, but in defense of his title Louis knocked out Schmeling in the first round. This was one of eight championship fights the Brown Bomber fought at Yankee Stadium.
On July 1, 1939, Max Baer defeated Lou Nova at Yankee Stadium, the first televised boxing match in the United States. The event was broadcast by television station W2XBS, forerunner of WNBC-TV. (The World Series was not televised until 1947.) On September 27, 1946, Tony Zale knocked out New York native Rocky Graziano for the middleweight crown; it was the first of three bouts between Zale and Graziano.
On June 25, 1952, middleweight champion Sugar Ray Robinson sought his third title against light-heavyweight champ Joey Maxim at Yankee Stadium. More than 47,000 saw Robinson outfight Maxim but lose due to heat exhaustion in round 14 (due to the 104-degree weather). The referee who declared Maxim the winner was the second that night; the first had left the fight due to heat exhaustion.
After its 1970s renovation, Yankee Stadium hosted only one championship fight. On September 28, 1976, a declining Muhammed Ali defended his heavyweight crown against Ken Norton. To that point, Norton was one of only two boxers who had beaten Ali (in 1973); this was their third and final meeting. Norton led for most of the fight, but Ali improved in the later rounds to win by unanimous decision.

Boxing at Yankee Stadium
When an ill Ruth could not lead the Yankees to the World Series in 1925, college football took center stage at Yankee Stadium that fall. The fiercely competitive Notre Dame-Army game moved to Yankee Stadium, where it remained until 1947. In the 1928 game, with the score 0-0 at halftime, legendary Notre Dame coach Knute Rockne gave his "win one for the Gipper" speech (with reference to All-American halfback George Gipp, who died in 1920); Notre Dame went on to defeat Army, 12-6.
Notre Dame played 24 games at Yankee Stadium, going 15-6-3. Army played 38, compiling a 17-17-4 record. New York University played more games there than any other school, 96, using it as a secondary home field from 1923 to 1948, with a record of 52-40-4. Nearby Fordham University played 19 games there, going 13-5-1.
Eight college football games were played at Yankee Stadium on Thanksgiving Day, the first seven by New York University. NYU beat Carnegie Tech (now Carnegie Mellon University) in 1931 and 1932, defeated Fordham in 1936, lost to Oregon State in 1928, lost to Carnegie Tech in 1929, and lost to Fordham in 1934 and 1935. In the eighth game, in 1963, Syracuse University beat Notre Dame, 14-7. This was a rematch following the teams' controversial 1961 game won by Notre Dame, 17-15.
The Gotham Bowl was scheduled to premiere at Yankee Stadium in 1960, but was canceled when no opponent could be found for Oregon State University. The 1961 game was moved to the Polo Grounds, and when just 6,166 people came to Yankee Stadium for the 1962 game, in which the University of Nebraska defeated the University of Miami, 36-24, the Gotham Bowl was never played again.
Starting in 1971, the Stadium hosted the Whitney M. Young Urban League Classic, a game between historically black colleges, often featuring Grambling State University of Louisiana, coached by Eddie Robinson, the first college coach to win 400 games. The Classic helped to spread the fame of Grambling and other similar schools. Yankee Stadium hosted its final Classic during the 1987 season, also the last time a football game was played there. Grambling lost to Central State University of Ohio, 37-21.
The Classic has been held at Giants Stadium in New Jersey's Meadowlands Sports Complex ever since, though the Yankees remain a supporter of the event.

College football at Yankee Stadium
The New York Giants of the National Football League played their home games at Yankee Stadium from 1956 to 1973. On December 28, 1958, Yankee Stadium hosted the National Football League championship game, frequently called "the greatest game ever played." The Baltimore Colts tied the Giants, 17-17, on a field goal with seven seconds left. Led by quarterback Johnny Unitas, the Colts won in overtime, 23-17. The game's dramatic ending is often cited as elevating football to one of the United States' major sports.
In 1971 and 1976, the New York Cosmos of the North American Soccer League played their home games at Yankee Stadium. In the latter year, the team's star attraction was Pele. The Brazil native, known as the King of Football, was considered the best player in the world.

Professional football at Yankee Stadium
On July 11, 1939, Major League Baseball held its seventh All-Star Game at Yankee Stadium, in concert with the World's Fair being held at Flushing-Meadows in Queens. Yankees manager Joe McCarthy loaded his American League team with pinstripes: Bill Dickey (catcher), Joe DiMaggio (outfield), Joe Gordon (second base), Red Rolfe (third base), George Selkirk (outfield), and Red Ruffing (pitcher) were all in the starting lineup. Reserve players included Frankie Crosetti (shortstop), Lou Gehrig (first base), Lefty Gomez (pitcher), and Johnny Murphy (pitcher). The American League won, 3-1, behind a home run by DiMaggio, in front of more than 62,000. This was the second All-Star Game held in New York; the Polo Grounds hosted the event in 1934.
From 1959 to 1962, Major League Baseball held two All-Star Games. On July 13, 1960, Yankee Stadium hosted baseball's second All-Star Game in three days. The National League won both games. In the latter game, Whitey Ford was the starting pitcher. Yogi Berra (catcher), Mickey Mantle (outfield), Roger Maris (outfield), and Bill Skowron (first base) were in the starting lineup; Jim Coates (pitcher) and Elston Howard (catcher) were reserves. The National League won the Yankee Stadium game, 6-0, tying a record with four home runs, including one by hometown favorite Willie Mays. The 38,000 fans who attended the game saw Ted Williams in his final All-Star appearance.
Showcasing its new renovation, Yankee Stadium hosted the All-Star Game on July 19, 1977. With the Yankees defending their 1976 pennant, Billy Martin managed the American League team in his home field. The National League won its sixth consecutive All-Star Game, 7-5, in front of more than 56,000 fans; the senior circuit's streak would reach 11. Reggie Jackson (outfield) and Willie Randolph (second base) started for the American League; Sparky Lyle (pitcher), Thurmon Munson (catcher), and Graig Nettles (third base) also made the team. Jim Palmer was the game's starting pitcher because Nolan Ryan refused to play when Martin asked him.
Yankee Stadium will host its final All-Star Game in 2008.

All-Star Games at Yankee Stadium
Beginning in 1950, the stadium began holding religious conventions of the Jehovah's Witnesses. The first convention attracted 123,707 people, more in a single day than any other stadium event up to that time. Such a game did not take place during the 2006-07 season, but it may be a possibility for 2007-08. Based on the initial rumors, such a game would likely be played on New Year's Day and serve as the kickoff for NBC's NHL coverage for that season. During the New York Rangers game telecast on September 27, 2006 against the Boston Bruins, it was noted by Rangers play-by-play broadcaster Sam Rosen that a Rangers vs. Bruins matchup was a possibility for the NHL game at Yankee Stadium. It would be a clear attempt to play up the New York and Boston rivalry that is prevalent in all American sports, not just baseball.
On March 10, 2006, Yankee Stadium saw its first and only wedding at home plate. Blind sportswriter Ed Lucas, who has been a member of the Yankee family for over 40 years, got special permission from the Yankees, the City of New York, and Major League Baseball to exchange vows with his fiancée, Allison Pfieffle, on the same spot where Lou Gehrig made his famous farewell speech, among the many notable events. Over 400 people, including present and former members of the Yankee family were in attendance to see the happy couple united, and the ceremony was broadcast on ESPN, the YES Network, NBC's Today show and other national media outlets. Ed and his bride were introduced years before by longtime friend and baseball Hall of Fame Member Phil "The Scooter" Rizzuto. During the reception at the Stadium Club, Yankee owner George Steinbrenner surprised the crowd with an announcement that he would be picking up the entire tab for the wedding and honeymoon.

Other events at Yankee Stadium
"Why is it called the World Series when it's always played in the Bronx?"-Anonymous
Due to the Yankees' frequent appearances in the World Series, Yankee Stadium has played host to more postseason games than any stadium in baseball history.
Since its 1923 opening, 37 of 83 World Series have been played at Yankee Stadium, with the Yankees winning 26.
Sixteen of those World Series were clinched at Yankee Stadium:

New York Yankees, in 1927, 1938, 1947, 1950, 1951, 1953, 1977, 1996, and 1999
St. Louis Cardinals, in 1926 and 1942
Brooklyn Dodgers, in 1955, their only World Championship won in Brooklyn before moving to Los Angeles.
Milwaukee Braves, in 1957, the only World Series won by a Milwaukee team.
Cincinnati Reds, in 1976
Los Angeles Dodgers, in 1981
Florida Marlins, in 2003 Distinguishing characteristics

Main article: Monument Park (Yankee Stadium) Monument Park
One of the most distinguishing characteristics of Yankee Stadium was the copper frieze (painted white in the 1960s) that ran around the roof of the grandstand's upper deck. However, the renovation of the 1970s greatly scaled back the roof, and the facade was removed. A white replica was run along the bleacher billboards and scoreboard, where it stands to this day. In the new stadium, the facade will return to the upper deck roof.
"The Facade," as it is called, is used as an icon for both the stadium and the team. This can be clearly seen in its major use in graphics for the YES Network.
While it is called "the Facade" by fans, broadcasters, and Yankees officials, the correct term for the feature, "frieze," is used very sparingly. Even more technically, as these features served to cover up the ends of cantilevered beams that projected out towards the field from the outer walls of the stadium, they comprise a fascia.

The facade
Outside the stadium's main entrance gate, stands a 138-foot tall exhaust pipe in the shape of a baseball bat, complete with tape at the handle that frays off at the end. It is sponsored by Louisville Slugger, which leads to many people referring to it as "The Louisville Slugger". The bat is designed to look like a Babe Ruth model. The bat is also a designated meeting spot for fans to meet their ticket holding friends before entering the stadium.

The Big Bat
Yankee Stadium was built on a five-sided, irregular plot of land. This gave it a very distinctive asymmetrical shape. For many years, and even today after remodeling, left field and center field were and are much more difficult areas to hit home runs than right field. The designers' plans to extend the right field upper tiers compelled a short right field area. There would have been ample room for a "normal" right field if that design element had been omitted and the bleachers had been made much narrower. Nonetheless, this feature is one of many that makes Yankee Stadium fairly intimate, despite its size.

Asymmetry inside and outside
Since 1951, Bob Sheppard has been the public address announcer at Yankee Stadium. His distinctive voice (Yankee legend Reggie Jackson has called him "the Voice of God"), and the way he announces players for over half a century has made him a part of the lore of the stadium and the team. Before a player's first at-bat of the game, Sheppard announces his uniform number, his name, his position, and his number again. Example: "Number 2... Derek... Jeter... Shortstop... Number 2..." For each following at-bat, Sheppard announces just the position and name: "The shortstop, Derek Jeter." Sheppard's long-term back-up is Jim Hall.

Bob Sheppard
The Hammond Organ was installed at Yankee Stadium in 1967, and was primarily played by Eddie Layton from its introduction until his retirement after the 2003 season. The playing of the organ has added to the character of the stadium for many years, playing before games, introducing players, during the national anthem and the rendition of "Take me out to the ball game" during the seventh inning stretch. After Layton's retirement, he got to pick his replacements, New York Islanders organist Paul Cartier and Ed Alstrom.

Hammond Organ
After the September 11 terrorist attacks, all Major League Baseball stadiums started playing God Bless America during the seventh-inning stretch for the remainder of the 2001 season. Many teams ceased this practice the following season, although it has continued in post-season events and Sunday games at many cities. Usually, a recording of the song by Kate Smith is played, although sometimes there is a live performance by Irish tenor Ronan Tynan. For part of the 2005 season, the Yankees used a recording of Tynan, but the Kate Smith version was reinstated due to fan complaints.

"God Bless America"
Another tradition for Yankee Stadium is that after each home game, the classic song "New York, New York" is played over the loudspeakers; Frank Sinatra's version after a win or loss. (Formerly Liza Minnelli's version after a loss.)

"New York, New York"
While some elements of the Stadium are decidedly modern, its asymmetry, monuments in left-center field and exterior arches give fans a reminder of the Stadium during its most golden period. Even the blue YANKEE STADIUM letters over the main gate are longtime features; they're the same letters that first appeared there in the 1950s; the letters were originally white before being painted blue in the 1960s. The proximity to the 4 train makes it a part of the stadium, and there is a large gap in the walls behind the right field bleachers where fans and commuters can get a peek at each other.

Other characteristics
After the first pitch is thrown at the top of the first inning, the "Bleacher Creatures" in Section 39, usually led by a man nicknamed Bald Vinny (a t-shirt designer and vendor who was featured in 2005 in the YES Network's reality television show YES's Ultimate Road Trip), begin chanting the names of every player in the defensive lineup (except the pitcher and catcher, with some rare exceptions), starting with the center fielder (ie: "JOH-nee DA-mon, clap, clap, clap clap clap"). They do not stop chanting the player's name until he acknowledges the Creatures (usually with a wave or a point), who then move on to the next player. Other names called out during roll call from time to time have included Yankee broadcasters John Sterling and Michael Kay, or Aaron Boone, Bucky Dent, and Babe Ruth when the Yankees host the rival Boston Red Sox. Sometimes, after a long rain delay, the Creatures start another Roll Call for comedic effect. Often when a player is replaced in the field, their replacement is also welcomed with a chant.
In 1999, when David Wells, who had pitched a perfect game for the Yankees the season before, made his first appearance at the stadium since an offseason trade to the Toronto Blue Jays, the Creatures included David Wells in the roll call. When David Wells was a Yankee, he was also the only Yankee pitcher to receive a roll call every time he pitched.
In Hideki Matsui's first game at Yankee stadium the chants of "Matsui" went on for approximately two minutes, because Matsui didn't know what was going on and was unsure of what to do.
Alfonso Soriano's name was chanted when he made his first appearance at Yankee Stadium after being traded to the Texas Rangers before the 2004 season.
Former Yankee third baseman Scott Brosius is notorious for not waving to the Bleacher Creatures immediately after they chanted his name the first time, like many players on the diamond. He got such a kick out of it, that he would wait until they chanted for sometimes up to a minute for him to wave at them.
In the 2006 home opener against the Kansas City Royals, the Bleacher Creatures chanted the name of Bernie Williams, who was the designated hitter that day, right after the rest of the defensive lineup. Williams, whose future in baseball was uncertain in the offseason, was in the clubhouse at the time and did not hear the Creatures. Pitcher Shawn Chacon ran to the clubhouse to retrieve Williams, but by the time they returned the chant had ended.
On April 2, 2007, The Bleacher Creatures chanted "We Want Bernie" in response to Bernie not returning to the Yankees.

Roll call
When the Yankees score a run, a version of the Westminster chime plays as the last player to score in the at-bat gets to home plate. The version of the chime is the beginning of Workaholic by the music group 2 Unlimited. The only time the chime is not played is if the Yankees score a game winning run, thus "Theme from New York, New York" by Frank Sinatra is played.

Westminster chime
Yankee Stadium can be reached via the 161st Street–Yankee Stadium station of the New York City Subway, along the IRT Jerome Avenue Line (4) and IND Concourse Line (B D).
Since the 1970s renovation, there has discussion to add a Metro-North station on the Hudson Line tracks that run behind the Stadium's south parking garage, but the Yankees have never been willing to pay for the station. In 2006, the Metropolitan Transportation Authority (MTA) said it plans to pay for a station after the Yankees relocate to a new stadium north of 161st Street in 2009. The station will cost $45 million. The MTA said it will use money that had been earmarked to explore a subway expansion to La Guardia Airport in Queens.
The MTA also has buses that run to the stadium. Lines Bx1, Bx2, Bx6, and Bx13 all have stops near Yankee Stadium.
Yankee Stadium has 15 official parking lots around the stadium for those wishing to travel by car. The main auto route to the stadium is the Major Deegan Expressway (I-87).
NY Waterway runs a ferry service to Yankee Stadium from various piers in Manhattan and New Jersey. This service is called "The Yankee Clipper" and serves food and alcohol while fans enjoy New York skylines.

Access
Since it opened, Yankee Stadium has changed its dimensions several times. This chronology is derived from a variety of sources. Green Cathedrals, by Phil Lowry, is a good basic reference. Baseball annuals, starting with editions in the 1920s, routinely gave dimensions of the major league ballparks. Photos are also a good source, as the Yankees were among the first to post distance markers on the outfield walls. Among the many book sources of photos are Yankee Stadium: Fifty Years of Drama, by Joseph Durso; and Yankee Stadium: 75 Years of Drama, Glamour and Glory, by Ray Robinson and Christopher Jennison.
The team's magazines indicate that there may be an area of center field as deep as 417 feet. If so, it is unmarked.

Photo gallery

Main article: New Yankee Stadium

The municipality of the city of Kiev has a unique legal status compared to the other administrative subdivisions of Ukraine. The most significant difference is that the city is subordinated directly to the national-level branches of the Government of Ukraine, skipping the provincial level authorities of Kiev Oblast (province). Additionally, the leading governmental position is held by the locally elected, rather than appointed, figure, and the municipal self-governance institutions have a higher than elsewhere in Ukraine latitude in the local affairs.
This unique standing of the city's institution of self-governance reflects the role of Kiev as the capital of Ukraine and is also based on historic reasons inherited from the city's administrative status within the Soviet Union where Kiev held the position of the City of the republican subordination.
Currently, the legal status and the local government of Kiev is regulated by the special provisions of the Constitution of Ukraine as well as a combination of Ukrainian laws, namely the Law on the capital of Ukraine - Hero City Kiev,

Local representation of the central government of Ukraine

Subdivisions of Kiev

Overview
The name Thaler (from German thal, or nowadays usually Tal, "valley", cognate with "dale" in English) came from the German coin Guldengroschen ("great guilder", being of silver but equal in value to a gold guilder), minted from the silver from a rich mine at Joachimsthal - Jáchymov (St. Joachim's Valley) in Bohemia (then part of the Holy Roman Empire, now part of the Czech Republic).
For further history of the name, see Dollar.

Etymology
The colloquialism buck is often used to refer to dollars of various nations, including the U.S. dollar. This term, dating to the 18th century, may have originated with the colonial fur trade. Greenback is another nickname originally applied specifically to the 19th century Demand Note dollars created by Abraham Lincoln to finance the costs of the Civil War for the North. The original note was printed in black and green on the back side. It is still used to refer to the U.S. dollar (and not to the dollars of other countries).
Grand, sometimes shortened to simply G, is a common term for the amount of $1,000. The suffix K (from "kilo") is also commonly used to denote this amount (such as "$10K" being pronounced "Ten kay" to mean $10,000). Banknotes' nicknames are usually the same as their values (such as five, twenty, etc.) The $5 bill has been referred to as a "fin" or a "fiver" or a "five-spot", and the $10 bill as a "sawbuck", a "ten-spot", or a "Hamilton", the $20 Bill as a "double sawbuck" or a "Jackson", the $1 bill is sometimes called a "single", the $2 bill a "deuce" or a "Tom" and the $100 bill is nicknamed a Benjamin, or "Benjie" (after Benjamin Franklin, who is honored on the note) or a C-note (C being the Roman numeral for 100)or a Century Note. Occasionally these will be referred to as "dead presidents", although neither Hamilton ($10) nor Franklin ($100) was President. $100 notes are occasionally referred to as 'large' in banking ("twenty large" being $2,000, etc.). The newer designs are sometimes referred to as "Bigface" bills.
In Panama, the translation of buck is palo (lit. stick); a nickname for the balboa (dollar). For example: Esto vale 20 palos ("This is worth 20 bucks").

Nicknames
See also: History of the United States dollar
The first dollar coins issued by the United States Mint were of the same size and composition as the Spanish dollar and even after the American Revolutionary War the Spanish and U.S. silver dollars circulated side by side in the United States. However, various English colonies were also used, including the lion dollar..
For articles on the currencies of the colonies and states, see Connecticut pound, Delaware pound, Georgia pound, Maryland pound, Massachusetts pound, New Hampshire pound, New Jersey pound, New York pound, North Carolina pound, Pennsylvania pound, Rhode Island pound, South Carolina pound and Virginia pound.

History
See also Continental currency
In 1775, the United States and the individual states began issuing "Continental Currency" denominated in Spanish dollars and (for the issues of the states) the £sd currencies of the states. The dollar was valued relative to the states' currencies at the following rates:
The continental currency suffered from printing press inflation and was replaced by the silver dollar at the rate of 1 silver dollar = 1000 continental dollars.

Continental currency
From 1792, when the Mint Act was passed, the dollar was pegged to silver and gold at 371.25 grains of silver, 24.75 grains of gold (15:1 ratio). 1834 saw a shift in the gold standard to 23.2 grains, followed by a slight adjustment to 23.22 grains in 1838 (16:1 ratio).
In 1862, paper money was issued without the backing of precious metals, due to the Civil War. Silver and gold coins continued to be issued and in 1878 the link between paper money and coins was reinstated.
In 1900, the bimetallic standard was abandoned and the dollar was defined as 23.22 grains of gold. Silver coins continued to be issued for circulation until 1964, when all silver was removed from dimes and quarters, and the half dollar was reduced to 40% silver. Silver half dollars were last issued for circulation in 1969.
Gold coins were withdrawn in 1933 and the gold standard was changed to 13.71 grains, equivalent to setting the price of 1 troy ounce of gold at $35. This standard persisted until 1968. Between 1968 and 1975, a variety of pegs to gold were put in place. 1975 saw the U.S. dollar freely float on currency markets.
Official United States coins have been produced every year from 1792 to the present. In normal circulation today, there are coins of the denominations 1¢ ([One] Cent, also referred to as a Penny), 5¢ (Nickel), 10¢ (Dime), 25¢ (Quarter Dollar officially, or simply Quarter in common usage), 50¢ (Half Dollar; uncommon), and $1 (Dollar; uncommon). Federal Reserve Notes exist as $1, $2 (uncommon), $5, $10, $20, $50, and $100 denominations. Previously to 1934 there were also $500, $1000, $5000, $10000, and 7 $100,000 bills made. According to http://www.highdenomination.com/Gold_Details.asp?id=904 there were 42,000 $100,000 notes printed, all of which were gold certificates and are accounted for. They were never intended for general circulation and are illegal to own.
Dollar coins have not been very popular in the United States.
The United States has minted other coin denominations at various times from 1792 to 1935: half-cent, 2-cent, 3-cent, 20-cent, $2.50, $3.00, $5.00, $10.00, $20.00 and $50.00. Technically, all these coins are still legal tender at face value, though they are far more valuable today for their numismatic value, and for gold and silver coins, their precious metal value. In addition, an experimental $4.00 coin was also minted, but never placed into circulation and is properly considered to be a pattern rather than an actual coin denomination. The $50 coin mentioned was only produced in 1915 for the Panama-Pacific International Exposition (1915) celebrating the opening of the Panama Canal. Only 1,128 were made, 645 of them were octagonal; this remains the only US coin that was not round as well as the largest and heaviest US coin ever.
In the 1936 to present period the only denominations produced for circulation have been the familiar penny, nickel, dime, quarter, half dollar and dollar. (The nickel is the only coin we use today that is essentially unchanged (except in its design) from its original version. Every year since 1866 our nickel has been 75% copper and 25% nickel, except for 4 years during World War II when nickel was needed for the war.) Since 1982 the United States Mint has also produced many different denominations and designs specifically for collectors and speculators. The rest of this paragraph briefly mentions some of these coins. There are silver, gold and platinum bullion coins, called "American Eagles," all of which are legal tender though their use in everyday transactions is non-existent. The reason for this is that they are not intended for use in transactions and thus the face value of the coins is much lower than the worth of the precious metals in them. The American Silver Eagle bullion coin is issued only in the $1 (1 troy ounce) denomination. The American Gold Eagle bullion coin denominations (with gold content) are: $5 (1/10 troy oz), $10 (1/4 troy oz), $25 (1/2 troy oz), and $50 (1 troy oz). The American Platinum Eagle bullion coin denominations (with platinum content) are: $10 (1/10 troy oz), $25 (1/4 troy oz), $50 (1/2 troy oz), and $100 (1 troy oz). The silver coin is 99.9% silver, the gold coins are 91.67% gold (22 karat), and the platinum coins are 99.95% platinum. These coins are not available from the Mint for individuals but must be purchased from authorized dealers. In 2006 The Mint began direct sales to individuals of uncirculated bullion coins with a special finish, and bearing a "W" mintmark. The Mint also produces high quality "proof" coins intended for collectors in the same denominations and bullion content which are available to individuals.
The largest denominations of currency currently printed or minted by the United States are the $100 bill and the $100 troy ounce Platinum Eagle.

Silver and gold standards

Value
The minutes to the August 8, 2006 meeting, at which the Federal Open Market Committee kept short-term interest rates unchanged for the first time in more than two years, supported the view that U.S. borrowing costs have peaked. The dollar fell on the news on August 29, 2006, and has continued lower August 30, 2006, largely ignoring news the U.S. government has revised its estimate of second-quarter economic growth 2006 up to 2.9% from the initial 2.5%.

Factors influencing the price
This chart shows the amount of USD, in a particular year, that could purchase an equivalent amount of goods that were worth $1.00 in 1980.

Time-relative value
The dollar is also used as the standard unit of currency in international markets for commodities such as gold and petroleum (the latter sometimes called petrocurrency). Even foreign companies with little direct presence in the United States, such as the European company Airbus, list and sell their products in dollars, although some argue this is attributed to the aerospace market being dominated by American companies.
At the present time, the U.S. dollar remains the world's foremost reserve currency, primarily held in $100 denominations. The majority of U.S. notes are actually held outside the United States, known as eurodollars (not to be confused with the euro) regardless of the location. Economist Paul Samuelson and others maintain that the overseas demand for dollars allows the United States to maintain persistent trade deficits without causing the value of the currency to depreciate and the flow of trade to readjust. Milton Friedman at his death believed this to be the case but, more recently, Paul Samuelson has said he now believes that at some stage in the future these pressures will precipitate a run on the U.S. dollar with serious global financial consequences.
Not long after the introduction of the euro (€; ISO 4217 code EUR) as a cash currency in 2002, the dollar began to depreciate steadily in value. After the euro started to rise in value in March 2002, the U.S. trade and budget deficits continued to increase. By Christmas 2004 the dollar had fallen to new lows against all major currencies, especially the euro. The euro rose above $1.36/€ (under 0.74 €/$) for the first time in late December 2004, in sharp contrast to its lows in early 2003 ($0.87/€). In late May and early June, the U.S. dollar, with the advantage of Federal Reserve's policy of raising rates, rose significantly against all major currencies. The U.S. dollar broke almost all expectations in 2005 (some analysts previewed the dollar dropping as far as $1.60 per euro), finished the year with a significant double-digit recovery against the euro and Japanese Yen. However in 2006, the dollar again showed a double digit (11%) loss against the euro. This fall continued and the dollar hit a new record low in 2007 with 1.38 per euro.

International use

Main article: Reserve currency The dollar as the major international reserve currency

Main article: US Dollar Index US Dollar Index
Other nations besides the United States use the U.S. dollar as their official currency, a process known as official dollarization. For instance, Panama has been using the dollar alongside the Panamanian balboa as the legal tender since 1904 with a rate of change of 1:1. Ecuador (2000), El Salvador (2001), and East Timor (2000) all adopted the currency independently. The former members of the U.S.-administered Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, which included Palau, the Federated States of Micronesia, and the Marshall Islands, chose not to issue their own currency after becoming independent, having all used the U.S. dollar since 1944. Two British dependencies also use the U.S. dollar: the British Virgin Islands (1959) and Turks and Caicos Islands (1973).
Some other countries link their currency to U.S. dollar at a fixed exchange rate. The local currencies of Bermuda and the Bahamas can be freely exchanged at a 1:1 ratio for USD. Argentina used a fixed 1:1 exchange rate between the Argentine peso and the U.S. dollar from 1991 until 2002. The currencies of Barbados and Belize are similarly convertible at an approximate 2:1 ratio. In Lebanon, one dollar is equal to 1500 Lebanese pound, and is used inter­changeably with local currency as de facto legal tender. The exchange rate between the Hong Kong dollar and the United States dollar has also been linked since 1983 at HK$7.8/USD, and pataca of Macau, pegged to Hong Kong dollar at MOP1.03/HKD, indirectly linked to the U.S. dollar at roughly MOP8/USD. Several oil-producing Gulf Arab countries, including Saudi Arabia, peg their currencies to the dollar, since the dollar is the currency used in the international oil trade.
The renminbi used by the People's Republic of China was informally and controversially pegged to the dollar in the mid-1990s at Y8.28/USD. Likewise, Malaysia pegged its ringgit at RM3.8/USD in 1997. On July 21, 2005 both countries removed their pegs and adopted managed floats against a basket of currencies. Kuwait did likewise on May 20, 2007,

Dollarization and fixed exchange rates

Exchange rates

Big Mac Index Suit by sightless over U.S. banknote design

Fiat currency
Gold as an investment
Silver as an investment
Category:Historical currencies of the United States
Where's George?
Economy of the United States